Emulated system memory and address spaces management — MAME Documentation 0.287 documentation

# Emulated system memory and address spaces management

## 1. Overview

The memory subsystem (emumem and addrmap) combines multiple functions useful for system emulation:

- address bus decoding and dispatching with caching

- static descriptions of an address map

- RAM allocation and registration for state saving

- interaction with memory regions to access ROM

Devices create address spaces, e.g. decodable buses, through the `device_memory_interface`. The machine configuration sets up address maps to put in the address spaces, then the device can do read and writes through the bus.

## 2. Basic concepts

### 2.1 Address spaces

An address space, implemented in the class address_space, represents an addressable bus with potentially multiple sub-devices connected requiring a decode. It has a number of data lines (8, 16, 32 or 64) called data width, a number of address lines (1 to 32) called address width and an Endianness. In addition an address shift allows for buses that have an atomic granularity different than a byte.

Address space objects provide a series of methods for read and write access, and a second series of methods for dynamically changing the decode.

### 2.2 Address maps

An address map is a static description of the decode expected when using a bus. It connects to memory, other devices and methods, and is installed, usually at startup, in an address space. That description is stored in an address_map structure which is filled programmatically.

### 2.3 Shares, banks and regions

Memory shares are allocated memory zones that can be put in multiple places in the same or different address spaces, and can also be directly accessed from devices.

Memory banks are zones that indirect memory access, giving the possibility to dynamically and efficiently change where a zone actually points to.

Memory regions are read-only memory zones in which ROMs are loaded.

All of these have names allowing to access them.

### 2.4 Views

Views are a way to multiplex different submaps over a memory range with fast switching. It is to be used when multiple devices map at the same addresses and are switched in externally. They must be created as an object of the device and then setup either statically in a memory map or dynamically through `install_*` calls.

Switchable submaps, aka variants, are named through an integer. An internal indirection through a map ensures that any integer value can be used.

## 3. Memory objects

### 3.1 Shares - memory_share

    class memory_share {
        const std::string &name() const;
        void *ptr() const;
        size_t bytes() const;
        endianness_t endianness() const;
        u8 bitwidth() const;
        u8 bytewidth() const;
    };

A memory share is a named allocated memory zone that is automatically saved in save states and can be mapped in address spaces. It is the standard container for memory that is shared between spaces, but also shared between an emulated CPU and a driver. As such one has easy access to its contents from the driver class.

    required_shared_ptr<uNN> m_share_ptr;
    optional_shared_ptr<uNN> m_share_ptr;
    required_shared_ptr_array<uNN, count> m_share_ptr_array;
    optional_shared_ptr_array<uNN, count> m_share_ptr_array;

    [device constructor] m_share_ptr(*this, "name"),
    [device constructor] m_share_ptr_array(*this, "name%u", 0U),

At the device level, a pointer to the memory zone can easily be retrieved by building one of these four finders. Note that like for every finder calling `target()` on the finder gives you the base pointer of the `memory_share` object.

    memory_share_creator<uNN> m_share;

    [device constructor] m_share(*this, "name", size, endianness),

A memory share can be created if it doesn’t exist in a memory map through that creator class. If it already exists it is just retrieved. That class behaves like a pointer but also has the `target()`, `length()`, `bytes()`, `endianness()`, `bitwidth()` and `bytewidth()` methods for share information. The desired size is specified in bytes.

    memory_share *memshare(string tag) const;

The `memshare` device method retrieves a memory share by name. Beware that the lookup can be expensive, prefer finders instead.

### 3.2 Banks - memory_bank

    class memory_bank {
        const std::string &tag() const;
        int entry() const;
        void set_entry(int entrynum);
        void configure_entry(int entrynum, void *base);
        void configure_entries(int startentry, int numentry, void *base, offs_t stride);
        void set_base(void *base);
        void *base() const;
    };

A memory bank is a named memory zone indirection that can be mapped in address spaces. It points to `nullptr` when created. `configure_entry` associates an entry number and a base pointer. `configure_entries` does the same for multiple consecutive entries spanning a memory zone.

`set_base` sets the base address for the active entry. If there are no entries, entry 0 (zero) is automatically created and selected. Use of `set_base` should be avoided in favour of pre-configured entries unless there are an impractically large number of possible base addresses.

`set_entry` dynamically and efficiently selects the active entry, `entry()` returns the active entry number, and `base()` gets the associated base pointer.

    required_memory_bank m_bank;
    optional_memory_bank m_bank;
    required_memory_bank_array<count> m_bank_array;
    optional_memory_bank_array<count> m_bank_array;

    [device constructor] m_bank(*this, "name"),
    [device constructor] m_bank_array(*this, "name%u", 0U),

At the device level, a pointer to the memory bank object can easily be retrieved by building one of these four finders.

    memory_bank_creator m_bank;

    [device constructor] m_bank(*this, "name"),

A memory bank can be created if it doesn’t exist in a memory map through that creator class. If it already exists it is just retrieved.

    memory_bank *membank(string tag) const;

The `membank` device method retrieves a memory bank by name. Beware that the lookup can be expensive, prefer finders instead.

### 3.3 Regions - memory_region

    class memory_region {
        u8 *base();
        u8 *end();
        u32 bytes() const;
        const std::string &name() const;
        endianness_t endianness() const;
        u8 bitwidth() const;
        u8 bytewidth() const;
        u8 &as_u8(offs_t offset = 0);
        u16 &as_u16(offs_t offset = 0);
        u32 &as_u32(offs_t offset = 0);
        u64 &as_u64(offs_t offset = 0);
    }

A region is used to store read-only data like ROMs or the result of fixed decryptions. Their contents are not saved, which is why they should not being written to from the emulated system. They don’t really have an intrinsic width (`base()` returns an `u8 *` always), which is historical and pretty much unfixable at this point. The `as_*` methods allow for accessing them at a given width.

    required_memory_region m_region;
    optional_memory_region m_region;
    required_memory_region_array<count> m_region_array;
    optional_memory_region_array<count> m_region_array;

    [device constructor] m_region(*this, "name"),
    [device constructor] m_region_array(*this, "name%u", 0U),

At the device level, a pointer to the memory region object can easily be retrieved by building one of these four finders.

    memory_region *memregion(string tag) const;

The `memregion` device method retrieves a memory region by name. Beware that the lookup can be expensive, prefer finders instead.

### 3.4 Views - memory_view

    class memory_view {
        memory_view(device_t &device, std::string name);
        memory_view_entry &operator[](int slot);

        void select(int entry);
        void disable();

        const std::string &name() const;
    }

A view allows to switch part of a memory map between multiple possibilities, or even disable it entirely to see what was there before. It is created as an object of the device.

    memory_view m_view;

    [device constructor] m_view(*this, "name"),

It is then setup through the address map API or dynamically. At runtime, a numbered variant can be selected using the `select` method, or the view can be disabled using the `disable` method. A disabled view can be re-enabled at any time.

### 3.5 Bus contention handling

Some specific CPUs have been upgraded to be interruptible which allows to add bus contention and wait states capabilities. Being interruptible means, in practice, that an instruction can be interrupted at any time and the execute_run method of the core exited. Other devices can then run, then eventually controls returns to the core and the instruction continues from the point it was started. Importantly, this can be triggered from a handler and even be used to interrupt just before the access that is currently done (e.g. continuation will redo the access).

The CPUs supporting that declare their capability by overriding the method `cpu_is_interruptible` to return true.

Three intermediate contention handlers can be added to accesses:

- `before_delay`: wait a number of cycles before doing the access.

- `after_delay`: wait a number of cycles after doing the access.

- `before_time`: wait for a given time before doing the access.

For the delay handlers, a method or lambda is called which returns the number of cycles to wait (as a u32).

The `before_time` is special. First, the time is compared to the current value of cpu->total_cycles(). That value is the number of cycles elapsed since the last reset of the cpu. It is passed as a parameter to the method as a u64 and must return the earliest time as a u64 when the access can be done, which can be equal to the passed-in time. From there two things can happen: either the running cpu has enough cycles left to consume to reach that time. In that case, the necessary number of cycles is consumed, and the access is done. Otherwise, when there isn't enough, the remaining cycles are consumed, the access aborted, scheduling happens, and eventually the access is redone. In that case the method is called again with the new current time, and must return the (probably same) earliest time again. This will happen until enough cycles to consume are available to directly do the access.

This approach allows to for instance handle consecutive DMAs. A first DMA grabs the bus for a transfer. This shows up as the method answering for the earliest time for access the time of the end of the dma. If no timer happens until that time the access will then happen just after the dma finishes. But if a timer elapses before that and as a consequence another dma is queued while the first is running, the cycle will be aborted for lack of remaining time, and the method will eventually be called again. It will then give the time of when the second dma will finish, and all will be well.

It can also allow to reduce said earlier time when circumstances require it. For instance a PIO latch that waits up to 64 cycles that data arrives can indicate that current time + 64 as a target (which will trigger a bus error for instance) but if a timer elapses and fills the latch meanwhile the method will be called again and that time can just return the current time to let the access pass though. Beware that if the timer elapsing did not fill the latch then the method must return the time it returned previously, e.g. the initial access time + 64, otherwise irrelevant timers happening or simply scheduling quantum effects will delay the timeout, possibly to infinity if the quantum is small enough.

Contention handlers on the same address are taken into account in the `before_time`, `before_delay` then `after_delay` order. Contention handlers of the same type on the same address at last-one-wins. Installing any non-contention handler on a range where a contention handler was removes it.

## 4. Address maps API

### 4.1 General API structure

An address map is a method of a device which fills an address_map structure, usually called map, passed by reference. The method then can set some global configuration through specific methods and then provide address range-oriented entries which indicate what should happen when a specific range is accessed.

The general syntax for entries uses method chaining:

    map(start, end).handler(...).handler_qualifier(...).range_qualifier().contention();

The values start and end define the range, the handler() block determines how the access is handled, the handler_qualifier() block specifies some aspects of the handler (memory sharing for instance) and the range_qualifier() block refines the range (mirroring, masking, lane selection, etc.). The contention methods handle bus contention and wait states for cpus supporting them.

The map follows a “last one wins” principle, where the handler specified last is selected when multiple handlers match a given address.

### 4.2 Global configurations

#### 4.2.1 Global masking

    map.global_mask(offs_t mask);

Specifies a mask to be applied to all addresses when accessing the space that map is installed in.

#### 4.2.2 Returned value on unmapped/nop-ed read

    map.unmap_value_low();
    map.unmap_value_high();
    map.unmap_value(u8 value);

Sets the value to return on reads to an unmapped or nopped-out address. Low means 0, high ~0.

### 4.3 Handler setting

#### 4.3.1 Method on the current device

    (...).r(FUNC(my_device::read_method))
    (...).w(FUNC(my_device::write_method))
    (...).rw(FUNC(my_device::read_method), FUNC(my_device::write_method))

    uNN my_device::read_method(address_space &space, offs_t offset, uNN mem_mask)
    uNN my_device::read_method(address_space &space, offs_t offset)
    uNN my_device::read_method(address_space &space)
    uNN my_device::read_method(offs_t offset, uNN mem_mask)
    uNN my_device::read_method(offs_t offset)
    uNN my_device::read_method()

    void my_device::write_method(address_space &space, offs_t offset, uNN data, uNN mem_mask)
    void my_device::write_method(address_space &space, offs_t offset, uNN data)
    void my_device::write_method(address_space &space, uNN data)
    void my_device::write_method(offs_t offset, uNN data, uNN mem_mask)
    void my_device::write_method(offs_t offset, uNN data)
    void my_device::write_method(uNN data)

Sets a method of the current device or driver to read, write or both for the current entry. The prototype of the method can take multiple forms making some elements optional. `uNN` represents `u8`, `u16`, `u32` or `u64` depending on the data width of the handler. The handler can be narrower than the bus itself (for instance an 8-bit device on a 32-bit bus).

The offset passed in is built from the access address. It starts at zero at the start of the range, and increments for each `uNN` unit. An `u8` handler will get an offset in bytes, an `u32` one in double words. The `mem_mask` has its bits set where the accessors actually drive the bit. It’s usually built in byte units, but in some cases of I/O chips ports with per-bit direction registers the resolution can be at the bit level.

#### 4.3.2 Method on a different device

    (...).r(m_other_device, FUNC(other_device::read_method))
    (...).r("other-device-tag", FUNC(other_device::read_method))
    (...).w(m_other_device, FUNC(other_device::write_method))
    (...).w("other-device-tag", FUNC(other_device::write_method))
    (...).rw(m_other_device, FUNC(other_device::read_method), FUNC(other_device::write_method))
    (...).rw("other-device-tag", FUNC(other_device::read_method), FUNC(other_device::write_method))

Sets a method of another device, designated by an object finder (usually `required_device` or `optional_device`) or its tag, to read, write or both for the current entry.

#### 4.3.3 Lambda function

    (...).lr{8,16,32,64}(NAME([...](address_space &space, offs_t offset, uNN mem_mask) -> uNN { ... }))
    (...).lr{8,16,32,64}([...](address_space &space, offs_t offset, uNN mem_mask) -> uNN { ... }, "name")
    (...).lw{8,16,32,64}(NAME([...](address_space &space, offs_t offset, uNN data, uNN mem_mask) -> void { ... }))
    (...).lw{8,16,32,64}([...](address_space &space, offs_t offset, uNN data, uNN mem_mask) -> void { ... }, "name")
    (...).lrw{8,16,32,64}(NAME(read), NAME(write))
    (...).lrw{8,16,32,64}(read, "name_r", write, "name_w")

Sets a lambda called on read, write or both. The lambda prototype can be any of the six available for methods. One can either use `NAME()` over the whole lambda, or provide a name after the lambda definition. The number is the data width of the access, e.g. the NN.

#### 4.3.4 Direct memory access

    (...).rom()
    (...).writeonly()
    (...).ram()

Selects the range to access a memory zone as read-only, write-only or read/write respectively. Specific handler qualifiers specify the location of this memory zone. There are two cases when no qualifier is acceptable:

- `ram()` gives an anonymous RAM zone not accessible outside of the address space.

- `rom()` when the memory map is used in an `AS_PROGRAM` space of a (CPU) device which names is also the name of a region. Then the memory zone points to that region at the offset corresponding to the start of the zone.

    (...).rom().region("name", offset)

The `region` qualifier causes a read-only zone point to the contents of a given region at a given offset.

    (...).rom().share("name")
    (...).writeonly.share("name")
    (...).ram().share("name")

The `share` qualifier causes the zone point to a shared memory region identified by its name. If the share is present in multiple spaces, the size, bus width, and, if the bus is more than byte-wide, the Endianness must match.

#### 4.3.5 Bank access

    (...).bankr("name")
    (...).bankw("name")
    (...).bankrw("name")

Sets the range to point at the contents of a memory bank in read, write or read/write mode.

#### 4.3.6 Port access

    (...).portr("name")
    (...).portw("name")
    (...).portrw("name")

Sets the range to point at an I/O port.

#### 4.3.7 Dropped access

    (...).nopr()
    (...).nopw()
    (...).noprw()

Sets the range to drop the access without logging. When reading, the unmap value is returned.

#### 4.3.8 Unmapped access

    (...).unmapr()
    (...).unmapw()
    (...).unmaprw()

Sets the range to drop the access with logging. When reading, the unmap value is returned.

#### 4.3.9 Subdevice mapping

    (...).m(m_other_device, FUNC(other_device::map_method))
    (...).m("other-device-tag", FUNC(other_device::map_method))

Includes a device-defined submap. The start of the range indicates where the address zero of the submap ends up, and the end of the range clips the submap if needed. Note that range qualifiers (defined later) apply.

Currently, only handlers are allowed in submaps and not memory zones or banks.

### 4.4 Range qualifiers

#### 4.4.1 Mirroring

    (...).mirror(mask)

Duplicate the range on the addresses reachable by setting any of the 1 bits present in mask. For instance, a range 0-0x1f with mirror 0x300 will be present on 0-0x1f, 0x100-0x11f, 0x200-0x21f and 0x300-0x31f. The addresses passed in to the handler stay in the 0-0x1f range, the mirror bits are not seen by the handler.

#### 4.4.2 Masking

    (...).mask(mask)

Only valid with handlers, the address will be masked with the mask before being passed to the handler.

#### 4.4.3 Selection

    (...).select(mask)

Only valid with handlers, the range will be mirrored as with mirror, but the mirror address bits are preserved in the offset passed to the handler when it is called. This is useful for devices like sound chips where the low bits of the address select a function and the high bits a voice number.

#### 4.4.4 Sub-unit selection

    (...).umask16(16-bits mask)
    (...).umask32(32-bits mask)
    (...).umask64(64-bits mask)

Only valid with handlers and submaps, selects which data lines of the bus are actually connected to the handler or the device. The mask value should be a multiple of a byte, e.g. the mask is a series of 00 and ff. The offset will be adjusted accordingly, so that a difference of 1 means the next handled unit in the access.

If the mask is narrower than the bus width, the mask is replicated in the upper lines.

#### 4.4.5 Chip select handling on sub-unit

    (...).cselect(16/32/64)

When a device is connected to part of the bus, like a byte on a 16-bits bus, the target handler is only activated when that part is actually accessed. In some cases, very often byte access on a 68000 16-bits bus, the actual hardware only checks the word address and not if the correct byte is accessed. `cswidth` tells the memory system to trigger the handler if a wider part of the bus is accessed. The parameter is that trigger width (would be 16 in the 68000 case).

#### 4.4.6 User flags

    (...).flags(16-bits mask)

This parameter allows to set user-defined flags on the handler which can then be retrieved by an accessing device to change their behaviour. An example of use the i960 which marks burstable zones that way (they have a specific hardware-level support).

### 4.5 Contention

    (...).before_time(method).(...)
    (...).before_delay(method).(...)
    (...).after_delay(method).(...)

These three methods allow to add the contention methods to a handler. See section 3.5. Multiple methods can be handler to one handler.

### 4.6 View setup

    map(start, end).view(m_view);
    m_view[0](start1, end1).[...];

A view is setup in a address map with the view method. The only qualifier accepted is mirror. The “disabled” version of the view will include what was in the range prior to the view setup.

The different variants are setup by indexing the view with the variant number and setting up an entry in the usual way. The entries within a variant must of course stay within the range. There are no other additional constraints. The contents of a variant, by default, are what was there before, i.e. the contents of the disabled view, and setting it up allows part or all of it to be overridden.

Variants can only be setup once the view itself has been setup with the `view` method.

A view can only be put in one address map and in only one position. If multiple views have identical or similar contents, remember that setting up a map is nothing more than a method call, and creating a second method to setup a view is perfectly reasonable. A view is of type `memory_view` and an indexed entry (e.g. a variant to setup) is of type `memory_view::memory_view_entry &`.

A view can be installed in another view, but don’t forget that a view can be installed only once. A view can also be part of “what was there before”.

## 5. Address space dynamic mapping API

### 5.1 General API structure

A series of methods allow the bus decoding of an address space to be changed on-the-fly. They’re powerful but have some issues:

- changing the mappings repeatedly can be slow

- the address space state is not saved in the saved states, so it has to be rebuilt after state load

- they can be hidden anywhere rather than be grouped in an address map, which can be less readable

The methods, rather than decomposing the information in handler, handler qualifier and range qualifier, put them all together as method parameters. To make things a little more readable, lots of them are optional.

### 5.2 Handler mapping

    uNN my_device::read_method(address_space &space, offs_t offset, uNN mem_mask)
    uNN my_device::read_method_m(address_space &space, offs_t offset)
    uNN my_device::read_method_mo(address_space &space)
    uNN my_device::read_method_s(offs_t offset, uNN mem_mask)
    uNN my_device::read_method_sm(offs_t offset)
    uNN my_device::read_method_smo()

    void my_device::write_method(address_space &space, offs_t offset, uNN data, uNN mem_mask)
    void my_device::write_method_m(address_space &space, offs_t offset, uNN data)
    void my_device::write_method_mo(address_space &space, uNN data)
    void my_device::write_method_s(offs_t offset, uNN data, uNN mem_mask)
    void my_device::write_method_sm(offs_t offset, uNN data)
    void my_device::write_method_smo(uNN data)

    readNN_delegate   (device, FUNC(read_method))
    readNNm_delegate  (device, FUNC(read_method_m))
    readNNmo_delegate (device, FUNC(read_method_mo))
    readNNs_delegate  (device, FUNC(read_method_s))
    readNNsm_delegate (device, FUNC(read_method_sm))
    readNNsmo_delegate(device, FUNC(read_method_smo))

    writeNN_delegate   (device, FUNC(write_method))
    writeNNm_delegate  (device, FUNC(write_method_m))
    writeNNmo_delegate (device, FUNC(write_method_mo))
    writeNNs_delegate  (device, FUNC(write_method_s))
    writeNNsm_delegate (device, FUNC(write_method_sm))
    writeNNsmo_delegate(device, FUNC(write_method_smo))

To be added to a map, a method call and the device it is called onto have to be wrapped in the appropriate delegate type. There are twelve types, for read and for write and for all six possible prototypes. Note that as all delegates, they can also wrap lambdas.

    space.install_read_handler(addrstart, addrend, read_delegate, unitmask, cswidth, flags)
    space.install_read_handler(addrstart, addrend, addrmask, addrmirror, addrselect, read_delegate, unitmask, cswidth, flags)
    space.install_write_handler(addrstart, addrend, write_delegate, unitmask, cswidth, flags)
    space.install_write_handler(addrstart, addrend, addrmask, addrmirror, addrselect, write_delegate, unitmask, cswidth, flags)
    space.install_readwrite_handler(addrstart, addrend, read_delegate, write_delegate, unitmask, cswidth, flags)
    space.install_readwrite_handler(addrstart, addrend, addrmask, addrmirror, addrselect, read_delegate, write_delegate, unitmask, cswidth, flags)

These six methods allow to install delegate-wrapped handlers in a live address space. Either plain or with mask, mirror and select. In the read/write case both delegates must be of the same flavor (`smo` stuff) to avoid a combinatorial explosion of method types. The `unitmask`, `cswidth` and `flags` arguments are optional.

### 5.3 Direct memory range mapping

    space.install_rom(addrstart, addrend, void *pointer)
    space.install_rom(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, void *pointer)
    space.install_rom(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, flags, void *pointer)
    space.install_writeonly(addrstart, addrend, void *pointer)
    space.install_writeonly(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, void *pointer)
    space.install_writeonly(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, flags, void *pointer)
    space.install_ram(addrstart, addrend, void *pointer)
    space.install_ram(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, void *pointer)
    space.install_ram(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, flags, void *pointer)

Installs a memory block in an address space, with or without mirror and flags. `_rom` is read-only, `_ram` is read/write, `_writeonly` is write-only. The pointer must be non-null, this method will not allocate the memory.

### 5.4 Bank mapping

    space.install_read_bank(addrstart, addrend, memory_bank *bank)
    space.install_read_bank(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, memory_bank *bank)
    space.install_read_bank(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, flags, memory_bank *bank)
    space.install_write_bank(addrstart, addrend, memory_bank *bank)
    space.install_write_bank(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, memory_bank *bank)
    space.install_write_bank(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, flags, memory_bank *bank)
    space.install_readwrite_bank(addrstart, addrend, memory_bank *bank)
    space.install_readwrite_bank(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, memory_bank *bank)
    space.install_readwrite_bank(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, flags, memory_bank *bank)

Install an existing memory bank for reading, writing or both in an address space.

### 5.5 Port mapping

    space.install_read_port(addrstart, addrend, const char *rtag)
    space.install_read_port(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, const char *rtag)
    space.install_read_port(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, flags, const char *rtag)
    space.install_write_port(addrstart, addrend, const char *wtag)
    space.install_write_port(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, const char *wtag)
    space.install_write_port(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, flags, const char *wtag)
    space.install_readwrite_port(addrstart, addrend, const char *rtag, const char *wtag)
    space.install_readwrite_port(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, const char *rtag, const char *wtag)
    space.install_readwrite_port(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, flags, const char *rtag, const char *wtag)

Install ports by name for reading, writing or both.

### 5.6 Dropped accesses

    space.nop_read(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, flags)
    space.nop_write(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, flags)
    space.nop_readwrite(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, flags)

Drops the accesses for a given range with an optional mirror and flags;

### 5.7 Unmapped accesses

    space.unmap_read(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, flags)
    space.unmap_write(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, flags)
    space.unmap_readwrite(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, flags)

Unmaps the accesses (e.g. logs the access as unmapped) for a given range with an optional mirror and flags.

### 5.8 Device map installation

    space.install_device(addrstart, addrend, device, map, unitmask, cswidth, flags)

Install a device address with an address map in a space. The `unitmask`, `cswidth` and `flags` arguments are optional.

### 5.9 Contention

    using ws_time_delegate  = device_delegate<u64 (offs_t, u64)>;
    using ws_delay_delegate = device_delegate<u32 (offs_t)>;

    space.install_read_before_time(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, ws_time_delegate)
    space.install_write_before_time(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, ws_time_delegate)
    space.install_readwrite_before_time(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, ws_time_delegate)

    space.install_read_before_delay(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, ws_delay_delegate)
    space.install_write_before_delay(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, ws_delay_delegate)
    space.install_readwrite_before_delay(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, ws_delay_delegate)

    space.install_read_after_delay(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, ws_delay_delegate)
    space.install_write_after_delay(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, ws_delay_delegate)
    space.install_readwrite_after_delay(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, ws_delay_delegate)

Install a contention handler in the decode path. The addrmirror parameter is optional.

### 5.10 View installation

    space.install_view(addrstart, addrend, view)
    space.install_view(addrstart, addrend, addrmirror, view)

    view[0].install...

Installs a view in a space. This can be only done once and in only one space, and the view must not have been setup through the address map API before. Once the view is installed, variants can be selected by indexing to call a dynamic mapping method on it.

A view can be installed into a variant of another view without issues, with only the usual constraint of single installation.

### 5.11 Taps

    using tap = std::function<void (offs_t offset, uNN &data, uNN mem_mask)

    memory_passthrough_handler mph = space.install_read_tap(addrstart, addrend, name, read_tap, &mph);
    memory_passthrough_handler mph = space.install_write_tap(addrstart, addrend, name, write_tap, &mph);
    memory_passthrough_handler mph = space.install_readwrite_tap(addrstart, addrend, name, read_tap, write_tap, &mph);

    mph.remove();

A tap is a method that is be called when a specific range of addresses is accessed without overriding the actual access. Taps can change the data passed around. A write tap happens before the access, and can change the value to be written. A read tap happens after the access, and can change the value returned.

Taps must be of the same width and alignment as the bus. Multiple taps can act over the same addresses.

The `memory_passthrough_handler` object collates a number of taps and allow to remove them all in one call. The `mph` parameter is optional and a new one will be created if absent.

Taps are lost when a new handler is installed at the same addresses (under the usual principle of last one wins). If they need to be preserved, one should install a change notifier on the address space, and remove + reinstall the taps when notified.